Probiotic Effects on   References Dietary Factors Insulin Signaling Inflammation Molecular Effects Phylum Actinobacteria Genus Bifidobacterium ↓ HFD ↓ Obesity ↓ T2D ↓ Plasma glucose ↓ Insulin resistance B. animalis Anti-inflammatory B. animalis B. brevis B. infantis ↑ IRS1 ↑Akt ↑ ERK ↑ FA (B. animalis) ↑Butyrate B. brevis, B. infantis, B. longum) ↑ EPAs (B. brevis) [23,50,205-210] Phylum Firmicutes Genus Lactobacillus ↓ in T2D L. reuteri L. acidophilus L. casei L. plantarum L. rhamnosus ↓ Plasma glucose L. reuteri L. acidophilus L. casei L. plantarum ↓ Insulin resistance L. reuteri L. acidophilus L. fermentum L. casei L. plantarum L. rhamnosus ↓b-cell injury L. plantarum Anti-inflammatory L. reuteri L. acidophilus L. fermentum L. casei L. salivarius L. plantarum L. rhamnosus ↓ GLP-1 (L. reuteri) ↓ GLP-2 (L. casei) ↑ FA (L. reuteri, L. fermentum) ↑ PPARa mRNA (L. plantarum) ↓Gluconeogenic genes (L. rhamnosus) ↑Lactate  (all spp.) [22,24,43,44,81,211-224]   Genus Bacillus ↑ T2D B. caccae ↓ Insulin resistance Anti-inflammatory B. caccae B mesentericus   [25,225-227] Genus Clostridium ↓ T2D Clostridium cluster XIV Clostridium cluster IV Clostridium coccoides Clostridium leptum group ↑ T2D Clostridium difficile ↓ Plasma glucose Anti-inflammatory C. butricum Pro-inflammatory C. difficile Clostridium cluster XIV ↑ Butyrate Clostridium cluster XIV [25,227-234] Genus Faecalibacterium ↓T2D F. prausnitzii   Anti-inflammatory F. prausnitzii ↑ Butyrate Faecalibacteriumprausnitzii [235] Genus Roseburia ↓T2D Roseburiaintestinalis ↓T1DM   Anti-inflammatory Roseburiaintestinalis Roseburiafaecis ↑ Butyrate R. cecicola, R. intestinalis, R. hominis [22,74,235,236] Genus Eubacterium ↓ T1DM (BBDP mice) ↓ T2D Eubacteriumrectale ↓ Insulin resistance E. hallii Anti-inflammatory Eubacteriumrectale ↑ Butyrate E. rectale, E. ventriosum, E. hallii [235] Genus Ruminococcus ↑ T1DM (BBDP mice)   Anti-inflammatory   [27,235] Phylum Bacteriodetes Genus Bacteroides ↓T1DM ↓ T2D ↑ Circulating Glucose Anti-inflammatory B. fragilis   [27,226,235] Genus Prevotella ↓ T1DM ↓ T2D   Anti-inflammatory ↓Mucin [22,23,74,229,235,237] Phylum Proteobacteria Genus Escherichia ↑ T2D ↑ Insulin resistance Pro-inflammatory E. coli k88 Anti-inflammatory E. coli Nissle   [22,23,74,236,237]

Table 1: The role of gut microflora and their metabolites in diabetes, insulin signaling and inflammation.