Figure 1: Schematic bacterial cell and the resistance mechanisms to antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) elucidated until now. Arrows pointing upward indicated pathway up-regulation and arrows pointing down indicate pathways down-regulation. Brown helical structures show a poly-alanine antimicrobial peptide Pa-MAP and blue helical structures represent porines and membrane channels. Red dotted line represents charge modification in anionic bacterial cell surface. Metabolic pathways included energy and amino acid synthesis pathways.