| Stem cell |
Origin |
Characteristics |
Preclinical/clinical studies |
| ES cells |
Inner cell mass of the blastocysts |
pluripotent stem cells
biological and ethical problems
teratoma formation
graft versus-host disease |
on mdx mice [30] |
| iPS cells |
Reprogrammed mouse or human somatic cells |
pluripotent stem cells
no ethical problems
autologous transplantation possible
teratoma formation |
on mdx mice,alphaSG-null and
alphaSG-null/Scid/bg [67,73,74] |
| Amniotic fluid stem cells |
Amniotic fluid |
multipotent stem cells
no ethical problems
easy to isolate and expand in culture |
dystrophic mice [44-47] |
| Muscle -SP Cells |
Muscle tissue |
multipotent cells
high proliferation |
Scid/bg immunodeficient mice
[48,57,58] |
| Satellite cells |
Muscle fibres, under the basal lamina |
high self-renewal
high capacity to generate skeletal muscle
limited engraftment and migration |
Nude mice, pigs, trial on humans
[51-54]. |
| Mesoangioblast cells (MABs) |
Muscle blood vessels, pericyte |
high proliferation in vitro no tumor transformation
able to pass the endothelial layer |
alphaSG-null, mdx/scid mice,
GRMD dogs [59-61]; phase I/II
clinical trial ongoing. |
| Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) |
Bone marrow and also from different tissues (adipose, tendon, dental pulp, placenta) |
multipotent stem cells
easy to isolate and expand in culture
immunomodulatory properties
anti-inflammatory properties
low engraftment |
mdx mice [56-58]
tissue engineering applications
(biomaterials, bioreactors, bone
implants) |
| Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) |
Adipose tissue |
very easy to isolate and
multipotent cells
high proliferation in vitro
immunosuppressive properties |
mdx mice, small-scale studies on
tissue engineering, as BMSCs (bone
implants, biomaterials)
[38,39,71] |
