| Anesthetic |
Dose/Duration |
Model |
Main findings |
Reference |
| Sevoflurane |
3%, 6 hours |
PD7 Sprague-Dawley rats |
Sevoflurane elevated caspase-3 activation and ROS levels, decreased mitochondrial cardiolipin contents, altered cellular ultrastructure in the cerebral cortex and metabolic pathways of glucose and intracellular antioxidants. |
Liu, et al.[109] |
| Ketamine |
25 µM, 24 hours |
Hippocampal neuron cultures from 19-day-old Wistar rat embryos |
Ketamine exposure significantly increased the number of apoptotic neurons and the cytosolic calcium concentration. Ketamine also led to a down-regulation of the CaMKII and a decrease in synapsin. |
Sinner, et al.[51] |
| Sevoflurane |
1.5%, 2 hours |
PD7 mouse pups |
Sevoflurane increased the phosphorylation of methyl-CpG island binding protein 2 in the hippocampus and sevoflurane-induced increases of neuronal cell death and phosphorylation of methyl-CpG were reversed by pre-treatment with memantine, a partial antagonist of the NMDAR |
Han, et al.[48] |
| Propofol |
25 mg/kg, 1 dose |
PD14 Wistar rats |
Propofol induced a significant decrease in the level of nerve growth factor in the thalamus and altered the expression levels of a variety of key neurotrophic factor receptors and downstream targets such as Akt and Erk. |
Popic, et a. [60] |
| Midazolam/Nitrous Oxide/
Isoflurane |
9 mg/kg midazolam, 75% NO, 0.75% iso, 6 hours |
PD7 Sprague-Dawley rats |
Anesthesia exposure up-regulated reactive oxygen species generation and down-regulated superoxide dismutase. Exposure to the anesthesia was also associated with increased mitochondrial fission. |
Boscolo, et al.[57] |
| Ketamine |
100 µM, 24 hours |
Human stem cell-derived neurons |
Ketamine exposure increased neuronal apoptosis, ROS production, and mitochondrial fission, ketamine induces implicating mitochondrial dysfunction as a key mechanism by which neurotoxicity. |
Bai, et al.[45] |
| Isoflurane |
Surgical dose, 5 hours |
Fetal rhesus macaques |
Isoflurane induced a significant increase in apoptosis of neurons and oligodendrocytes in the fetal monkey brain. |
Creeley, et al.[110] |
|