| Nanoparticle |
Description |
Clinical Use |
Side Effects |
Studies |
| Nanoparticles Used in Diagnosis of Melanoma |
| Quantum Dots [20,21,22] |
Cadmium and Zinc (CdSe/ZnS) QD with CD146, an antigen that is over-expressed in melanoma cells |
Targetting of melanoma cells for diagnostic and imaging purposes. |
Thrombogenicity and immunogenicity |
n/a |
| Quantum Dots [28] |
Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS)-coated CdTe-cored QD using mercaptosuccinic acid (MSA) and D-cysteine as stabilising agents |
The amphiphilic nature of this device renders it soluble in aqueous solutions and cell membranes enabling the use of lower QD concentrations hence avoiding toxicity. |
n/a |
n/a |
| C- Dots [30,31] |
Silica Based nanoparticles with poly-ethylene glycol (PEG) shell |
Enhancement of Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsies (SLNB) |
FDA approved |
Clinical Trial |
| IND approved |
| Phase 0 clinical trial (since 2011) |
| C Dots [32] |
technetium-99m (99mTc) sulphur colloid and fluorescent cRGDY-PEG-Cy5.5-C dots |
Tumour localisation and detection using fluorescence camera. |
In trial |
Clinical Trial stage Phase O |
| NCT02106598 |
| Gold Nanorods [33] |
gold nanorods conjugated with Arg-Gly-Asp peptides (RGD-GNRs) |
Enhance the response of melanoma cells to 6 mV radiation. |
Toxicity related to ligands on gold nano-particles |
In vitro |
| Magnetic Nanoparticles [37] |
Sienna+ magnetic nanoparticles |
Enhancement of Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsies (SLNB) |
Rash |
MELAMAG study |
| Itchiness |
| Dizziness |
| Skin discolouration |
| Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) [38,39] |
SPIO |
Enhancement of Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsies (SLNB) |
n/a |
SENTIMAG study |
| Superparamagnetic carbodextran-coated iron oxide [40] |
DS-SPION |
Enhancement of MRI/PET scan |
n/a |
In vitro |
| Drug Delivery Systems |
| Liposomes [52] |
Cisplatin |
Artificial vesicles consisting of an aqueous core and outer phospholipid layers; their aqueous core can be filled with drugs |
Toxicity due to cationic nature; |
Doxil (US) Myocet (UK) used for ovarian CA and myeloma |
| Vincristine |
|
|
| Doxorubicin |
Hand-foot syndrome |
Clinical trial for melanoma showed ineffective. |
| |
|
|
| |
|
NC-6004 (liposome-coated Cisplatin) phase I trial Japan |
| Albumin-coated nanoparticles [55] |
Paclitaxel with Abrexane (albumin coat) |
Drug Delivery System |
n/a |
8 clinical trials underway for melanoma |
| Antibody Drug Conjugates (ADCs) [56] |
Brentuximab vedotin, Trasruzumab emtansine |
Drug Delivery System |
n/a |
No clinical studies in melanoma |
| Antibody Drug Conjugates (ADCs) [56] |
Monoclonal antibody (mAb)Ep1 bound to ferritin cage encapsulating cisplatin *HFt-Pt-Ep1) |
Binds to the human melanoma specific antigen CSPG4 |
n/a |
n/a |
| Molecular Targeting |
| siRNA [61-63,68] |
CALAA-01 |
Interfere with DNA and protein synthesis and work by gene silencing |
Silencing on unintended RNA/ unable to transfer enough siRNA |
CALAA-01 trial |
| GSK2141795 |
| APN401 |
| Dendritic cells |
| Melanoma specific cell marker [69, 70] |
gold nanospheres to the alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) analog, a potent agonist of MC1R |
Used as cell markers and photothermal ablation. |
n/a |
n/a |
| Immunotherapy |
| Vaccine [74] |
HAM (hyperacute melanoma immunotherapy) |
The cellular components (HAM-1, HAM-2, and HAM-3) of HyperAcute-Melanoma immunotherapy have been derived from allogeneic melanoma cancer cell lines. |
Asthenia, Chills, dehydration, diarrhoea, fatigue, malaise |
HAM trial |
| Immunomodulator delivery vector [72] |
N-propionyl cysteaminylphenol-maleimide-dextran (NPCMD) |
The immuno-potentiating effect mediated by TLR4 and NLRP3 . |
n/a |
n/a |
| Nanopolymer [75] |
low molecular weight polyethylenimine (600 Da) linked by β-cyclodextrin and conjugated with folate (named H1) |
Nanopolymer used to deliver IL2 to affected tissues hence stimulating activation and proliferation of CD8+, CD4+ T cell, and natural killer cells and increasing the integration of these into the tumor environment |
IL2 – side effects: |
n/a |
| flu-like symptom |
| hypotension |
| nausea/vomiting |
| diarrhea |
| fatigue |
| confusion |
| shortness of breath |
| rash |
| low urine output |
| |
| Drug delivery system |
Nanoporous Silica Microparticle (NSiO(2)-MP) |
A drug delivery system and scaffolding platoform that activates Toll like Receptors (TLR) and macrophages. |
As above |
n/a |
| Vaccine |
Exosomes |
Exosomes can be used for both diagnostic and therapeutic agents (vaccine) |
n/a |
n/a |
| Photodynamic Therapy |
| Nanocarriers [83] |
Shells of charged biocompatible polymers grafted on gold nanospheres |
They can be labelled with a fluorescent photosensitizer and offer high local loading enhancing the use of Photodynamic Therapy |
n/a |
n/a |
| Nanomaterial-induced photodynamic therapy [81] |
Gold nanoechinus |
Gold nanoechinus can form singlet oxygen leading to photodynamic and photothermal therapeutic effect |
n/a |
n/a |
| Photothermal Therapy |
| Delivery carrier [80] |
Nanographene oxide-Hyaluronic Acid conjugate (NGO-HA) |
Transdermal delivery of NGO-HA to tumor tissues enabling the enhanced penetration of NIR irradiation. |
n/a |
n/a |
| Theranostics |
| Nanogels [82] |
Ag-Au bimetallic NP core with a thermo-responsive nonlinear poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based hydrogel shell |
Imaging; release of temozolimide to target cells; photothermal therapy |
n/a |
n/a |
| Carbon Nanotubes [81-82] |
a tubular structure composed of sheets of benzene rings |
Used as contrast agent for PET scans but also as biomarkers. |
n/a |
n/a |
| Magnetic Carbon nanotubes [80-82] |
As above |
They are conjugated to chemotherapeutic agents to provide treatment of lymphatic melanoma metastasis and SNLB (88). There is also a great scope for use as drug delivery systems, photodynamic therapy and gene |
n/a |
n/a |
