| Hormones |
Immune cells |
Effect |
References |
| Estradiol (E2) |
Neutrophils |
Regulate the number and function
Decrease chemotaxis by altering the expression of ICAM-1
Decrease superoxide anion production
Produce cytokines TNF-a, IL-6, and IL-1beta |
[28-31] |
| Macrophages |
Increase macrophage phagocytic activity
Increase CD14, LBP and TLR42 |
[32,33] |
| Dendritic cells |
Promote functional differentiation
Increase the expression of MHC II, CD14, CD40, CD80, CD86, CXCL8 and CCL2
Induce IKDCs and increase nitric oxide |
[34-36] |
| NK cells |
Decrease cytotoxicity
Upregulate the number of cells and expression of CD69, NKp46, NKG2DL, CD244, granzyme B and FasL |
[39,40] |
| Lymphocytes |
Upregulate T-bet expression (Th1 and proinflammatory cytokines)
Increase IL-4 production from CD4+ T cells
Decrease production of IL-17
Upregulate Treg cells (expression of Foxp3, IL-10 and PD-L1)
Stimulate antibody production |
[42-49] |
|
Progesterone
(P4) |
Macrophages |
Inhibition classical pathway activation (iNOS and arginase activity) |
[61] |
| Dendritic cells |
Inhibit the activity of mature DCs
Down-regulate TNF-α, IL-1β, MHC II, CD80
Inhibit DC-stimulated proliferation of T cells |
[62] |
| NK cells |
Regulate differentiation (Hox-A10)
Reduce in cytotoxicity (HLA-G) Inhibit of perforin release (PIBF)
Th2 differentiation and cytokine production (PIBF) |
[13,14,63,66] |
| Lymphocytes |
Promote differentiation of Th2
Induce migration of Treg cells to the pregnant uterus |
[13,181] |
| Testosterone |
Macrophages |
Inhibit the function of macrophages |
[12] |
| (T4) |
|
Reduce TLR4 expression
Inhibit NO production |
|
| |
APC’s |
Down-regulate IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α |
[70] |
| |
Lymphocytes |
Reduce Th1 cytokine release
Induce Th2 profile
Maintain Treg cells |
[72,73] |
| DHEA |
Neutrophil |
Increase superoxide generation |
[75] |
| |
Dendritic cells |
Induce mature DCs |
[76] |
| |
Lymphocytes |
Enhance IL-2 secretion of Th1 cells and cytotoxicity function of T cells
Induce apoptosis pathway Fas/Fas-L |
[77,78] |
