Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland and It is of two types: clinical and subclinical. Clinical mastitis (CM) is characterized by visible changes in milk (e.g., clots, color changes or consistence, and decreased production) that may be associated with inflammation signs of the udder (e.g., redness, swelling, heat, or pain) or the cow (e.g., dehydration, hyperthermia, and lethargy) [1]. Mastitis is a multietiological and complex disease, which is defined as inflammation of parenchyma of mammary glands. It is characterized by physical, chemical and, usually, bacteriological changes in milk, and pathological changes in glandular tissues [2]. Mastitis is a global problem as it adversely affects animal health, quality of milk and the economics of milk production, affecting every country, including developed ones and causes huge financial losses [3].

The dairy industry from a global perspective is massive and of major importance in economic growth. Today approximately over 150 million households around the globe are engaged in milk production. In East Africa, Kenya is the leading producer, producing an estimated 3.2 billion liters per year by approximately 600,000 smallholder farmers as per FAO. Recently, a remarkable increase in milk production is seen in African countries like Egypt, Ethiopia, Uganda and Namibia [4]. Cattle are the most important group of milk producing animals in both temperate and tropical agriculture. Somalia takes the first place in the world in possessing over six million one humped camel Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2004). The dromedary is an important livestock species in Somalia and plays a vital role household and in the national economy of the country [5-7].

They have also social and cultural importance to the pastoralists of the country for payment of bride-wealth, (known as ‘‘yarad’’ in Somali) and compensation of injured parties in tribal feuds, (known as ‘‘mag’’ in Somali ;) [8]. In the Somali ecosystem, camel, cattle, goats and sheep are main sources of Milk but Cattle relatively produce more milk then other species [9]. Schwartz et al., [10] recorded that the camel milk contains the necessary proteins, sugars, fats, minerals and vitamins for the young calves and is valuable food for the people. Beside that camel milk is a rich source of vitamin C for the desert people who are unable to get it from other sources. On the other hand, udder infection was considered as one of the main constraints for camel rearing. For instance, it has been noticed in the slaughter houses that early culling of female camel in Iraq is attributed to chronic mastitis and infertility [11]. During the last decades the disease has been reported from a number of camels rearing countries in Africa and Asia such as Egypt, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and United Arab Emirate. An attempt was made in this paper in order to review the status of camel mastitis (Camelus dromedarius) research in pastoral production system of both East Africa and Middle East. Goats are the third most important group of milk producing animals after dairy cattle and buffaloes in both temperate and tropical agriculture [9].

Their ability to adapt into different Agro-ecological zone makes the pest source of milk in different regions. They can withstand high temperatures, parasites and diseases [12]. Sub clinical mastitis remains one of the leading causes of reduced milk production in livestock. Mastitis refers to an inflammation of the mammary tissue and is a common disease in dairy cattle. This condition also possesses the risk for the transmission of zoonotic diseases like tuberculosis, brucellosis, leptospirosis and streptococcal sore throat to human beings [13].

Subclinical mastitis is hard to detect and treat because animals don’t show any clinical signs. Sub clinical mastitis causes a 70% loss of milk production in infected animals therefore; Subclinical mastitis is a major problem affecting dairy animals all over the world. It causes enormous losses for dairy animal and consequently influences the national income of the country [14].

Economic losses are due to; loss in milk production, discarding abnormal milk and milk withheld from cows treated with antibiotics, degrading of milk quality and price due to high bacterial or somatic cell count (SCC), costs of drugs, veterinary services and increased labor costs, increased risk of subsequent mastitis, herd replacement, and problems related to antibiotics residues in milk and its products [15]. There are no written reports about the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in Somalia. Therefore, there is a need to know the prevalence of sub clinical mastitis in the livestock of Somalia. The purpose of this study was to document and determine the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in dairy herds and to establish predisposing factors that may lead to mastitis in Somalia.

Problem statement

Livestock production accounts for 60-65% of the gross domestic product (GDP). Based on (1998 FAO) estimates of livestock numbers and past growth rates, Somalia has about 6 million camels, 0.80 million head of cattle, 13.4 million goats and 11.75 million sheep in 2012. Despite the large number of animals in Somalia, there is shortage of milk and this leads extensive consumption of imported milk and discouragement to development of dairy sector in Somalia.

The shortage of milk and milk products has many causes. However, information on Mastitis which is one of the major causes of reduced milk production in dairy lactating animals in Somalia particularly Benadir region is lacking or inadequate Therefore, establishing the prevalence of mastitis in Benadir region and management practices encouraging the development of mastitis is necessary. In addition to that intensive camel dairy farms and bovine is emerging rapidly and constantly complains on mastitis in their herd.

General objectives

This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of mastitis in dairy cows, camels and Goats in Benadir Region, Somalia.

Specific objectives

I. To determine the prevalence of mastitis in Banadir region.

II. To evaluate associated risk factors of mastitis.

III. Assess Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of dairy farmers in Banadir region.

Research questions

I. What are the causes of mastitis in lactating animals?

II. What are the risk factors associated with occurrence of mastitis?

III. What are the KAPs of farms in Banadir Region that predispose occurrence of mastitis?

Justification

The study will provide information on the extent to which mastitis is present among the dairy animals in Benadir region. This would be beneficial to both dairy farmers, other stakeholders in the dairy value chain to improve on the food security and increase households’ income in line with the vision of the ministry of livestock in Somalia. This study is also important to the future researchers, civil society, local authority, community based organization, business union and NGOs that involves to the health animals and animal productions.

Study area

Mogadishu or Benaadir region consists of 18 districts. It borders with middle Shebelle in the north and the east, lower Shebelle in the west and Indian Ocean in the south. The study was carried out in Five districts of Benadir region of Somalia namely, Dharkeenley, Yaqshid, Hiliwaa, Boondheere and Dayniile districts. The region lies between latitude 2°2′59″N and longitude 45°15′44″E. Although by far the smallest administrative region in Somalia, it has the largest population estimated to be about 2.3 million and covers an area approximately 96,878 km (Wikipedia, 2018). There is no information on Benaadir Animal population in particular. Therefore, these five districts were selected purposively due to their Animal population. Samples were collected randomly from the semi intensive and intensive dairy herds.

Population of the study

The target group of this study were all lactating Animals (Camel, Cattle and goats) in Benaadir Region for CMT screening. Dairy farmers were the second target group for interview about their knowledge, Attitude and Practices on mastitis.

Study design

A cross-sectional study was conducted from 1^st August 2018 to 1^st March 2019, to determine the burden or the prevalence of mastitis in the study area. All lactating dairy animals were examined using CMT results.

Sample size

The desired sample size for the study was calculated using the Formula given by Thrusfield with 95% confidence interval (CI) And 5% desired absolute precision and there was no previous study on prevalence of lactating animal in Benaadir region, so the expected prevalence used was 50%. Therefore,

Where n = the required sample size

P exp= Expected prevalence of lactating animals (50%)

d=Desired absolute precision level at 95% confidence level (5%)

Total Sample size was 384 of lactating dairy animals.

Sampling methods

Area selection was purposive due to the nature and reproductive systems used. Benaadir region was selected because it harbors dairy production corridors of Somalia. It is heavily invested by business and mostly practices both intensive and extensive production system. Farm selection was based on random selection by listing all dairy farms in the vicinity of Mogadishu by species of animals used as dairy then they were but, in a bowel, and selection was done randomly. Systematic selection was done at individual animal level where every third animal was selected for the sampling and screening. This systematic sampling was achieved by calculating the total number of animals from the farms through farm communication and then the interval is achieved by applying the following formula:

Where the total population *(N) is 1152 and sample size (n) is 384 therefore interval K is 3

Milk sample collection: Milk samples were directly collected from the udder of the animal at the early morning during ongoing milking process. The milk collection was conducted according to the national mastitis council (NMC, 2004). Starting from the teats furthest away from the collector, teats were cleaned with 70% alcohol and given time to dry and then, the first three streams of milk were discarded and then milk was collected directly from udder to clean CMT paddle.

Data collection instrument: Milk samples from each quarter are collected in a clean CMT Paddle. The CMT paddle has four shallow cups marked A, B, C, and D to help identify the individual quarter from which the milk was obtained. Each of the marked four shallow cups has marking lines measuring 2 mls.

California Mastitis Test (CMT): The test was conducted according to Mellenberger et al., [16] California mastitis reagent was used to screen dairy animals. From each quarter of the udder, each of milk samples measuring 2 mls was placed in each of the cups on the CMT paddle and using a syringe an equal amount of CMT reagent was added to each cup and mixed well. The test result were scored from 1-5 according to the Scandinavian scoring system, where 1 is negative result (no gel formation), 2 is traceable (possible infection) and 3 or above indicates a positive result, where 5 has the most gel formation [17].

According to the Scandinavian scoring system, the test was scored according to the agglutination and viscosity level of mixtures (reagent and milk). The interpretation was in such a way that CMT score: 1 negative (no gel formation), score 2 is traceable gel formation (possible infection) and 3 (visible gel formation) 4 and 5 has the most gel formation. Apart from 1 where there was no gel formation the rest 2 to 5 were considered positive, thus forming five categorical classes.

Observation: In the field observation was used to evaluate the hygiene of individual animal, herd level milkers and farm level as well as equipment level. Milking techniques used by the milkers, the milking time were observed. After a through observation how animals are milked and what hygienic protocols, they observe to validate the questionnaires administered to farmers.

Questionnaires: A questionnaire survey was conducted among Animal keepers to assess the knowledge-attitudepractice (KAP) among these herders and farmers towards mastitis. The questionnaire was administered to all farmers whose farms were included in the study population. The information gathered relates to their knowledge, practices and attitude to mastitis and it is management in addition to their knowledge on mastitis and its control.

Statistical analysis: The recorded data were entered office micro soft excel sheet and transferred to SPSS version 20.0 for analysis. The overall prevalence of mastitis was determined by using cross tabulation. Risk factor associated with the occurrence of mastitis like age, parity, lactation period, and species, was used to find if they were associated with occurrence of mastitis using Chi square model (X²) at P<0.05, since that data was mainly nominal X² was the best model to find association of the risk factors.

Reliability

Reliability is trustworthiness of a measuring instrument; it is the degree to which the instrument consistently measures whatever it is meant to be measuring. The researchers conducted a pilot study before the final collection of data. Data collection tools were pilot tested in order to ascertain their ability to solicit the relevant responses to support the study. The justification for establishing the reliability of the instruments is determined by the consistency, relevancy and clarity of the instruments.

Validity

Validity is the ability to produce findings that are in agreement with theoretical or conceptual values; in other words, to produce accurate results and to measure what is supposed to be measured (Amin, 2005). There are different ways of testing the validity of a result, as going back to the respondents and see if they agree or support the result. This is called face validity and could happen in personal conversations or in groups. In this study the researchers used that way of testing the validity of the result.

Ethical issues

Under this, the respondents were informed that participation were voluntary so that they make informed decision to participate or not. The researchers also going with an introductory letter protecting respondents through data confidentiality also minimized links between answers and identifiers, to avoid putting respondents in trouble. In addition, the researcher avoided racial or tribal remarks, which were not gender sensitive.

Prevalence of mastitis

Overall prevalence of mastitis: In the study a total of 384 lactating Animals were tested for mastitis. Out of which 90 tested positive and makes the overall prevalence 23.4%. The Table 1 above shows 90 (23.4%) were positive for CMT screening. According to Species the prevalence of mastitis are as follows: Camel 25.5% Goats 16%, and cattle 27.4% (Figure 1). The prevalence was higher in Cattle. According to Breed there was difference in the prevalence of mastitis, with 19 of the 50 Exotic cattle (38%) were found positive, and 4 out of the Local Cattle 34 (11.7%) were found positive. The prevalence was higher in Exotic Cattle and it varied significantly (P<0.03) with the lactation number Table 2.

Table 1: Overall prevalence of mastitis in selected dairy farms in Mogadishu.

Table 2: Prevalence of mastitis according to different cattle breeds.

Figure 1: Prevalence of mastitis according to the species.

Risk factors

As it is depicted in the above Table 3, age, parity and lactation are associated with mastitis and assumed to be risk factors with a statistically significant at p<0.5 and X2 is 45.742, 73.214 and 57.212 respectively. The Table 4 shows the results for risk factor analysis, and it is found that age, parity and lactation, Breed are statistically significant at P<0.05 and of 30.532, 34.252, and 43.208, 9.893 respectively. The Table 5 shows the risk factors that can be associated with camel mastitis. It is evident that age, parity, lactation stages are statistically significant at p<0.5 and X² 61.680, 46.078, and 80.920 respectively. The table also shows that there is no statistical significance in species at a p value of 0.117 and a X² of 4.285.

Table 3: Goat risk factors analysis.

Table 4: Cattle risk factors analysis.

Table 5: Camel risk factors analysis.

Questionnaire analysis: The study conducted survey to measure the knowledge, attitude and practices of dairy farmers in Benaadir region. Twelve questionnaires were filled from the farmers that were screened for mastitis.

Practices

According to the above Table 6, the Scrap hand with disinfectants, Cut nails short, Tit squeezing, Tit stripping, Wash hands with soap, Wash the udder with clean water, Post milking tit dipping and pre milking tit dipping percentages are 16.67%, 100.00%, 41.67%, 58.33%, 25.00%, 8.33%, 16.67%, 16.67% respectively. This shows overall poor milking practices breach of the standard Mastitis control protocols. According to Table 7, some of the respondents remove the slurry or Dung once a day 16.67%, 33.33%removed once a week while 50.00%, removed once a month respectively. In this case the it is clear that the general hygiene of the dairy farmers in Benaadir region is poor.

Table 6: Farm practices for mastitis.

Table 7: Frequent of slurry or dung removal.

Knowledge

According to the Table 8 above, observing the clinical signs, Use CM, Intramuscular injection, Use Intramammary tubes, percentages are 83.33%, 75.00%, 25.00%, 83.33% and 25.00% respectively. These shows the farmers have enough knowledge of mastitis it is signs and treatments, but they lack the preventive part of mastitis control.

Table 8: Knowledge for mastitis.

Attitude

According to the Table 9 above, calling a vet and Treat by myself, vets not important and important percentage of 16.67%, 75.00%, 75% and 16.67% respectively. In this table most of the farmers do not call a vet to treat and give advice on mastitis control, this shows how farmers don’t have faith on veterinarians. According to the Table 10 above the farmers use antibiotics for mastitis treatment Ox tetracycline being the most used antibiotics (83.33%) and Pen strep, is the least antibiotic used (16.67%). According to the Table 11, the antibiotic treated milk and use of milk treated with antibiotics, impact of antibiotic are: 25.00%, 75%, and 75% respectively. This shows the general attitude of farmers to antibiotic and mastitis milk is poor and need awareness creation and education to improve their attitude.

Table 9: Attitude for mastitis.

Table 10: Type and use of antibiotics.

Table 11: After treatment what do you do with the milk?

In this study the overall prevalence found was 23.4% and species wise the prevalence was 27.4%, 25.5% and 16% for cattle, camel and goats respectively. Cattle mastitis was high compared to camel and goats. In cattle the exotic breed showed the highest (38%) prevalence for mastitis. The same has been reported by Tedela [18] who reported prevalence of exotic cattle breeds as 39.8%. The difference could be associated with the intrinsic factors such as breed of animals examined, genetic resistance to mastitis and extrinsic factors such as production systems [18]. Camel mastitis prevalence in this study was 25.5%, this in agreement with research conducted in Somali region of Ethiopia which reported prevalence of camel mastitis as 25.3% [19].

In another research conducted in Kenya reported prevalence of goat as 30.3%, this study is contrary to what was found goats in Mogadishu which was 16%. the difference could arise from the different Grazing system and breeds of the two study subjects, the goats studied in this paper are semi intensive whereby they get exposed to environmental causes of mastitis less than intensive system. The farms studied by laban adopted intensive farming system and the breed are of the diary type. There are other researches that showed similar or close prevalence that was conducted in Ethiopia [20] reported prevalence 18.0%, 15.5% respectively.

Risk factors

There was association found between parity, age and lactation period at a P<0.05. This is in line with reports by Laban in Kenya who reported that the third and fourth parities were more susceptible to succumb to mastitis than first and second parities in dairy animals. It was also found that stage of lactation period was statistically significant at P>0.05, this agrees with Laban, Mbilu and Moreno who reported that late gestation period was significantly associated with occurrence of mastitis due to prolonged exposure to unhygienic environment and lack of dry therapy.

In this study KAPs analysis points out that there is overall poor practice of dairy farmers in Benaadir region. It was found out that only 16% of the respondents practice hand washing before milking, this is compounded by poor milking techniques in which tit striping is practiced by 58% of the respondents. Eighty percent of the respondents answered yes to washing the udder of the animal before milking. Where, 16% of the respondents practice post and pre milking tit dipping. This is similar to what was reported in Tanzania by kivaria [21] who sated that only 10% practiced squeezed milking techniques. While Laban, stated that 24% practice squeezing milking technique, this poor milking techniques cause’s damage to endothelial lining of the teat hence makes the tit prone to colonization by infection. Sharma et al., [22] also stated that 98% practiced hand washing and disinfection, udder washing before milking and none treated their goats with antibiotics, this is contrary to what was found in this paper and it could be attributed due to the lack of awareness on good milking practices and, extension services to dairy farmers. These poor practices are attributed to be predisposing factors that caused mastitis.

In this study it was found that the frequency of slurry and dung removal was low, 16.7% removed the slurry once a day, 33.3 of the respondents removed the slurry once a week while 50% of the respondents removed the slurry/dung once a month. These shows poor hygiene in the farm, as stated by Sudhan and Sharma [23] moisture, mad and manure in the environment of the animal are the primary causes of mastitis in dairy farms [24-86].

This study collected both qualitative and quantitative data and it was found out that the overall prevalence of mastitis 23.4% and is a major health problem of dairy Animals and will have an adverse effect on productivity of dairy industry and hence need serious attention. The study also revealed that there are general poor hygiene, poor practices and attitudes to dairy farmers. There was strong association between mastitis and risk factors as stipulated to be age, lactation period and parity. The risk factors could be exaggerated by the poor practices and attitudes of the farms. It is clear that, due to the farmers neglecting the ability of the veterinarian and livestock professionals to help alleviate the production impacting mastitis, mastitis prevalence is high. Therefore, there is need of the farmers to trust livestock professional and veterinarians.

This study recommends the following measures in order to control and prevent mastitis in large or small farms:-

Dairy farmers should improve hygiene during milking by;

• Proper washing of hands before milking and between animals.

• Only using clean water and separate towels for cleaning the udders.

• Implementing the use of teat-dip after milking.

• Keeping animals from lying down immediately after milking.

• Milking order where you milk non mastitis Animals first and Animals or quarters with mastitis infections last should be adhered to.

• Farmers should be advised to keep record in order to gain statistics on health status of dairy animals in herds.

• There is need to create awareness on Animal mastitis among Animal keepers. At the moment there is low level of awareness among pastoralists.

• Daily and periodic removal of manure from the Animals houses should be a routine exercise and should be accompanied by cleaning of the environment surrounding the dairy farms.

• California Mastitis Test and somatic cell count should be done at least once a Month for monitoring udder health status of dairy animals.

• Further studies are needed to determine complete microbiological analysis of dairy animals and sensitivity test of these pathogens.

• Farmers should be educated on the effect of mastitis on animal production and how to control it.

We thank The Almighty ALLAH for giving us all the necessary strengths, knowledge, wisdom, financial and moral ability to accomplish this work successfully. We wish sincerely to express our heartfelt gratitude to everyone who assisted us to complete this research report. Our primarily obligation is to our parents, brothers, friends who really help us strongly (May Allah forgive them and reward them Janna) and Somali National University and to Our Supervisor Dr. Abdirahman Bare Dubad. Who really deserves our highest praise for his endless guidance, support, encouragement, discussions and corrections, comments, criticisms and suggestions on the original manuscript of this report, without him this work might not end up successful. And also special thanks to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry which created us the appropriate capacity, so that we can do research in academic manner. The researchers appreciate and will not forget the kind guidance and recommendation by the panelists to make this work successful and more professional. The researchers owe a great deal of gratitude to SNU for its great contribution to enhance higher education in our country. Last but not least, researchers would like to show their appreciation to some close friends for their great help, encouragement and moral support during the research period.

We are grateful to the some of the Labors and managers of Mogadishu dairy farmers and some of veterinary students in SNU. We take this opportunity to thank our entire extended family for their love, care and encouragement to us. We are particularly indebted to our dear brothers and sisters are beloved: Our special thanks go to all the respondents who took their precious time to give us all the necessary information needed for this work. Lastly, our warm regards and blessings go to all of those who have made a positive contribution in our life. Allah blesses you all.

1. Fox LK (2009) Prevalence, incidence and risk factors of heifer mastitis. Vet Microbiol 134: 82-88.
2. Radostis OM, Gay CC, Blood DC, Hinchkliff KW (2000) Veterinary medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses. Elsevier Health Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Pp: 563-660.
3. Sharma N, Maiti SK, Sharma KK (2007) Prevalence, etiology and antibiogram of microorganisms associated with Sub-clinical mastitis in buffaloes in Durg, Chhattisgarh State (India). Int J Dairy Sci 2: 145-151.
4. Ndambi OA, Hemme T, Latacz-Lohmann U (2016) Dairying in Africa—Status and recent developments. Perspectives for Dairy Farming Systems in Africa, p: 25.
5. Abdurahman OS, Bornstein S, Osman KS, Abdi AM, Zakrisson G (1991) Prevalence of mastitis among camels in southern Somalia: a pilot study. Nordiska Afrikainst-Working Paper.
6. Abdurahman OS, Bornstein S (1991) Diseases of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Somalia and prospects for better health. Nomadic Peoples, pp: 104-112.
7. Abdurahman OS, Bornstein S, Osman KS, Abdi AM, Zakrisson G (1991) Prevalence of mastitis among camels in southern Somalia: a pilot study. Nordiska Afrikainst-Working Paper.
8. Abokor AC (1987) The camel in Somali oral traditions. Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden.
9. Faranworth E (2000) Goat milk— A dairy product with special properties. Small Ruminant Research 148: 118-131.
10. Schwartz HJ, Dioli M (1992) The one-humped camel in Eastern Africa. A pictorial guide to diseases, health care and management. Publ Verlag, Weikersheim, Germany.
11. Al-Ani FK, Al-Shareefi MR (1997) Studies on mastitis in lactating one humped camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Iraq. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 4: 47-49.
12. Ogola TDO, Nguyo WK, Kosgey LS (2010) Dairy goat product practice in Kenya: Implication for as breeding program. Journal of Livestock Research for Rural Development 22: 20-25.
13. Radostits OM, Gay CC, Hinchcliff KW, Constable PD (2007) Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the diseases of Cattle. Horses, Sheep, Pigs and Goats 10: 430-432.
14. Ramachandraiah K, Kumar KS, Sreemannarayana O (1990) Survey of mastitis in a pure Jersey herd. Indian Vet J 67: 103-106.
15. Bramely AJ, Cullor JS, Erskine RJ, Fox LK, Harmon RJ, et al. (1996) Current concepts of bovine mastitis. National Mastitis Council. Inc Arlington, Virginia, USA.
16. Mellenberger R, Roth CJ (2000) California Mastitis Test (CMT). Fact Sheet, Dept. of Animal Sciences, Michigan State University and Dept. of Dairy Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
17. Saloniemi H (1995) Use of somatic cell count in udder health work. The Bovine Udder and Mastitis, pp: 105-110.
18. Tedla M, Mehari F, Kebede H (2017) A cross-sectional survey and follow up study on major dairy health problems in large and small scale urban farms in Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes 11: 236.
19. Husein A, Haftu B, Hunde A, Tesfaye A (2013) Prevalence of camel (Camelus dromedaries) mastitis in Jijiga Town, Ethiopia. African Journal of Agricultural Research 8: 3113-3120.
20. Abera M, Abdi O, Abunna F, Megersa B (2010) Udder health problems and major bacterial causes of camel mastitis in Jijiga, Eastern Ethiopia: Implication for impacting food security. Trop Anim Health Prod 42: 341-347.
21. Kivaria FM, Noordhuizen JPTM, Kapaga AM (2006) Prospects and constraints of smallholder dairy husbandry in the Dar es Salaam region, Tanzania. Outlook on Agriculture 35: 209-215.
22. Sharma A, Sharma S, Singh N, Sharma V, Pal RS (2016) Impact of udder and teat morphometry on udder health in Tharparkar cows under climatic condition of hot arid region of Thar Desert. Trop Anim Health Prod 48: 1647-1652.
23. Sudhan NA, Sharma N (2010) Mastitis-an important production disease of dairy animals. SMVS Dairy Year Book, pp: 72-88.
24. Agab H, Abas B (1998) Epidemiological studies on camel disease in eastern Sudan. Camel News Letter 14: 53-57.
25. Ahmad S, Yaqoob M, Bilal MQ, Muhammad G, Yang LG, et al. (2012) Risk factors associated with prevalence and major bacterial causes of mastitis in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) under different production systems. Trop Anim Health Prod 44: 107-112.
26. Aljumaah RS, Almutairi FF, Ayadi M, Alshaikh MA, Aljumaah AM, et al. (2011) Factors influencing the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in lactating dromedary camels in Riyadh Region, Saudi Arabia. Trop Anim Health Prod 43: 1605-1610.
27. Almaw G, Molla B (2000) Prevalence and etiology of mastitis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in eastern Ethiopia. Journal of Camel Practice and Research 7: 97-100.
28. Antanaitis R, Žilaitis V, Juozaitienė V, Palubinskas G, Kučinskas A, et al. (2015) Efficient diagnostics and treatment of bovine mastitis according to herd management parameters. Vet Med Zoot 69: 3-10.
29. Arush MA (1984) Indagine Sulla Diffusione del Mastiti del Dromedario (Camelus dromedarius) in Somalia. Boll Sci Della Fac Di Zoot Vet 4: 99-104.
30. Atigui M, Marnet PG, Harrabi H, Bessalah S, Khorchani T, et al. (2016) Relationship between external and internal udder and teat measurements of machine milked dromedary camels. Trop Anim Health Prod 48: 935-942.
31. Ayano AA, Hiriko F, Simyalew AM, Yohannes A (2013) Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in lactating cows in selected commercial dairy farms of Holeta district. J Vet Med Anim Health 5: 67-72.
32. Barbour EK, Nabbut NH, Frerichs WM, Al-Nakhli HM, Al-Mukayel AA (1985) Mastitis inCamelus dromedarius in Saudi Arabia. Trop Anim Health Prod 17: 173-179.
33. Barua M, Prodhan MAM, Islam K, Chowdhury S, Hasanuzzaman M, et al. (2014) Sub-clinical mastitis prevalent in dairy cows in Chittagong district of Bangladesh: Detection by different screening tests. Veterinary World 7: 483-488.
34. Baxter JD, Rogers GW, Spencer SB, Eberhart RJ (1992) The effect of milking machine liner slip on new intramammary infections. J Dairy Sci 75: 1015-1018.
35. Beheshti R, Eshratkhah B, Shayegh J, Ghalehkandi JG, Dianat V, et al. (2011) Prevalence and etiology of subclinical mastitis in Buffalo of the Tabriz region, Iran. J Ame Sci 7: 642-645.
36. Blood DC (2000) Pocket companion to veterinary medicine. WB Saunders Company Ltd.
37. Byarugaba DK, Nakavuma JL, Vaarst M, Laker C (2008) Mastitis occurrence and constraints to mastitis control in smallholder dairy farming systems in Uganda. Education 32: 53.
38. El-Ghali A, El-Hussein AM (1995) Diseases of livestock in EdDamer Province, River Nile state, Sudan: a two-years retrospective study. Sud J Vet Sci Anim Husb 34: 37-45.
39. Erskine RJ, Bartlett PC, Halbert LW (2000) Intramuscular administration of ceftiofursodiu versus intramammary infusion of penicillin/novobiocin for treatment of Streptococcus agalactiae mastitis in dairy cows. J Ame Vet Med Assoc 208: 258-260.
40. Guarín JF, Ruegg PL (2016) Pre-and postmilking anatomical characteristics of teats and their associations with risk of clinical mastitis in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 99: 8323-8329.
41. Hafez AM, Fazig SA, El-Amrousi S, Ramadan RO (1987) Studies on mastitis on farm animals in Al Hassa: I-Analytical studies. Assoc Vet Med J 19: 140-145.
42. Hussein MA, Abdi AA, Mohammed M (2013) Knowledge, attitude and practice of female genital mutilation among women in Jigjiga Town, Eastern Ethiopia. Gaziantep Med J 19: 164-168.
43. Islam MA, Islam MZ, Rahman MS, Islam MT (2011) Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in dairy cows in selected areas of Bangladesh. Bangladesh J Vet Med 9: 73-78.
44. Kandemir FM, Yüksel M, Ozdemir N, Deveci H (2013) A different approach to diagnosis of subclinical mastitis: milk arginase activity. Vet Arhiv 83: 603-610.
45. Karmy SA (1990) Bacteriological studies on mastitis in small ruminants and she-camel in upper Egypt. J Egypt Vet Med Assoc (Egypt).
46. Kasozi KI, Tingiira JB, Vudriko P (2014) High prevalence of subclinical mastitis and multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus are a threat to dairy cattle production in Kiboga District (Uganda). Open J Vet Med 4: 35.
47. Kathiriya JB, Kabaria BB, Saradava DA, Sanepara DP (2014) Prevalence of subclinical mastitis in dairy cows in Rajkot district of Gujarat. Int J Sci Nat 5: 433-436.
48. Kavitha KL, Rajesh K, Suresh K, Satheesh K, Sundar NS (2009) Buffalo mastitis-risk factors. Buffalo Bull 28: 134-137.
49. Khan MZ, Khan A (2006) Basic facts of mastitis in dairy animals: A review. Pak Vet J 26: 204.
50. Khanal T, Pandit A (2013) Assessment of sub-clinical mastitis and its associated risk factors in dairy livestock of Lamjung, Nepal. Int J Infect Microbiol 2: 49-54.
51. Klaas I, Enevoldsen C, Ersbøll A, Tenhagen B, Rothfuss H (2006) Cow-related Risk Factors for Intramammary Infections with Streptococcus uberis and Staphylococcus aureus in Primiparous Cows. Dev Appl Syst Clin Udder Exam Suppl Tool Udder Health Assess, pp: 87-108.
52. Kossaibati MA, Esslemont RJ (1997) The costs of production diseases in dairy herds in England. Vet J 154: 41-51.
53. Lalrintluanga C, Ralte EL (2003) Incidence of mastitis, bacteriology and their antibiogram in dairy cattle in Aizawl, Mizoram. Indian Vet J 80: 931-932.
54. Lightner JK, Miller GY, Hueston WD, Dorn CR (1988) Estimation of the costs of mastitis, using National Animal Health Monitoring System and milk somatic cell count data. J Am Vet Med Assoc 192: 1410-1413.
55. Mamoun IE, Bakhiet MR (1992) Bovine staphylococcal mastitis due to Pseudomnas aeruginosa in dairy herd. Aust Vet J 48: 137-140.
56. Mein G, Reinemann D, Schuring N, Ohnstad I (2004) R-MM-1: Milking machines and mastitis risk–A storm in a teatcup. In Proceedings of the National Mastitis Council Annual Meeting, pp: 176-188.
57. Moges N, Hailemariam T, Fentahun T, Chanie M, Melaku A (2012) Bovine mastitis and associated risk factors in small holder lactating dairy farms in Hawassa, Southern Ethiopia. Global Veterinaria 9: 441-446.
58. Moroni P, Rossi CS, Pisoni G, Bronzo V, Castiglioni B, et al. (2006) Relationships between somatic cell count and intramammary infection in buffaloes. J Dairy Sci 89: 998-1003.
59. Mostafa AS, Ragab AM, Safwat EE, El-Sayed Z, Abd-el-Rahman M, et al. (1989) Examination of raw she-camel milk for detection of subclinical mastitis. J Egyp Vet Med Assoc 47: 117-128.
60. Muriuki HG (2011) Dairy development in Kenya. Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome.
61. Obeid AI (1983) Field investigation, clinical and laboratory findings of camel mastitis MVSc (Doctoral dissertation, Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
62. Obied AI, Bagadi HO, Mukhtar MM (1996) Mastitis in Camelus dromedarius and the somatic cell content of camels' milk. Res Vet Sci 61: 55-58.
63. Persson Y, Nyman AKJ, Grönlund-Andersson U (2011) Etiology and antimicrobial susceptibility of udder pathogens from cases of subclinical mastitis in dairy cows in Sweden. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 53: 36.
64. Quandil SS, Oudar Y (1984) Bacteriological study of a few mastitis cases on she-camel (Camelus dromedarius) in United Arab Emirates. (Preliminary note). Revue de Medecine Veterinaire (France).
65. Quinn PJ, Carter ME, Markey B, Carter GR (1994) Clinical Veterinary Microbiology. (1st edn). Wolfe Publishing, London, UK.
66. Rabbani AFMG, Samad MA (2010) Host determinants based comparative prevalence of subclinical mastitis in lactating Holstein-Friesian cross cows and Red Chittagong cows in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J Vet Med 8: 17-21.
67. Ramadan RO, Abdin-Bey R, Algasnawi YA, Abdalla ES, Fayed AA (1987) Chronic obstructive mastitis in the camel. A clinicopathological study. The Cornell Veterinarian 77: 132-150.
68. Regassa A, Golicha G, Tesfaye D, Abunna F, Megersa B (2013) Prevalence, risk factors, and major bacterial causes of camel mastitis in Borana Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 45: 1589-1595.
69. Salah W (2000) Camel milk bacteriology with especial reference to mastitis in Borena lowland pastoral area, south-western Ethiopia. DVM thesis, Addis Ababa University, Egypt.
70. Salwa MS (1995) Studies on camel mastitis, Atiology, clinical picture and milk composition. MV Sc Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
71. Sandholm M, Pyörälä S (1995) Dry cow therapy. The bovine udder and mastitis. University of Helsinki, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 209: 214.
72. Sanotharan N, Pagthinanthan M, Nafeed M (2016) Prevalence of bovine subclinical mastitis and it is association with bacteria and risk factors in milking cows of batticaloa district in serilan. Int J Sci Res Inno Technol 3: 2313-3759.
73. Sattar S, Hassan MM, Islam SKM, Alam M, Al-Faruk MS, et al. (2014) Antibiotic residues in broiler and layer meat in Chittagong district of Bangladesh. Veterinary World 7: 1-6.
74. Schroeder JW (2012) Mastitis control programs bovine mastitis and milking management. North Dakota State University Fargo. North Dakota.
75. Schukken YH, Gonzalez RN, Bennett GJ, Schulte HF, Welcome FL, et al. (2007) Quality milk production services: 60 years of milk quality improvement in New York State. In Annual meeting.
76. Siddiquee NU, Tripura TK, Islam MT, Bhuiyan SA, Rahman AKMA, et al. (2013) Prevalence of sub-clinical mastitis in high yielding crossbred cows using Draminski Mastitis Detector. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine 11: 37-41.
77. Singh RS, Bansal BK, Gupta DK (2014) Udder health in relation to udder and teat morphometry in Holstein Friesian× Sahiwal crossbred dairy cows. Tropical Animal Health and Production 46: 93-98.
78. Singh R, Sharma N, Soodan JS, Sudhan NA (2005) Etiology and sensitivity of bacterial isolates from sub clinical mastitis in cattle from Jammu region. J Res SKUAST-J 4: 223-224.
79. Srinivasan P, Balachandran P (2013) Prevalence and Etiology of Subclinical Mastitis among Buffaloes. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 16: 1776-1780.
80. Suheir IA, Salim MO, Yasin TE (2005) Bacteria, mycoplasma and fungi associated with sub-clinical mastitis in camel. Sudan J Vet Res 20: 23-31.
81. Swinkels JM, Rooijendijk JG, Zadoks RN, Hogeveen H (2005) Use of partial budgeting to determine the economic benefits of antibiotic treatment of chronic subclinical mastitis caused by Streptococcus uberis or Streptococcus dysgalactiae. J Dairy Res 72: 75-85.
82. Tadele K, Kebebew T, Hawi J, Abay B (2017) Screening of Bovine Mastitis in Lactating Dairy Cows in and around Debra TSIGE Town, North Ethiopia. J Med Microb Diagn 6: 262.
83. Thorberg BM (2008) Coagulase-negative staphylococci in bovine sub-clinical mastitis. Veterinary Medicine: Text book of diseases of cattle, sheep, pigs and goats.
84. Yegoub IA (2003) Studies on epidemiology, characterization and pathogenicity of Eimeria species in Sudanese camels. Thesis PhD, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
85. Younan M, Ali Z, Bornstein S, Müller W (2001) Application of the California mastitis test in intramammary Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus infections of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Kenya. Prevent Vet Med 51: 307-316.
86. Younan M, Ali Z, Müller W, Bornstein S (2000) Streptococcus agalactiae infection in camels Camelus dromedarius in Kenya. Journal of Livestock and Veterinary Medicine in Tropical Countries 53: 169-171.