Glucagon and epinephrine exert their actionsthrough an increase of cAMP intracellular levels. The elevation in cAMP on effectors cells of asthma promotes a range of effects that can reduce airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness, and therefore improve asthma framework. On the other hand, most of insulin and leptin actions involve PI3K activation thatinduces a pro-inflammatory status in airways of asthmatics, which will aggravate the airway responsiveness. (→): stimulation; (→): inhibition.
