In captivity, animals may face a number of challenges for which evolution has not prepared them. The climate, diet and the size and characteristics of the enclosure may be completely alien to the species as it exists in the wild. Captive animals may no longer be able to have control over their environment, nor carry out evolved behaviours aimed at enhancing their welfare or survival prospects. Instead they must rely on humans to provide for many of their physical, social, biological and other needs. If the captive environment does not cater for the species-specific needs of the animal, there can be a deterioration in both physical and mental health such as the development of abnormal behaviour, disease and even early mortality. Similarly, invasive interventions such as the restriction of movement, training using negative reinforcement techniques, being trained to preform unnatural behaviours or making modifications to the normal physiology of animals to reduce risks when handling, can cause severe and lasting distress. Abnormal behaviour can include stereotypic behaviours - repetitive behaviours which appear to have no obvious goal or function - such as repetitive pacing, swaying, head-bobbing or circling and bar-biting ‘demonstrably caused by the frustration of natural behaviour patterns, impaired brain function, or repeated attempts to deal with some problem’; over-grooming, excessive licking and vocalisation are recognised as displacement behaviours, ‘arising out of conflict when an animal is driven to perform two behaviours at the same time’ e.g. conflict between the fear of the keeper and the desire to get food; apathy and redirected aggression. You can submit articles in our peer reviewed

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