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The essence of cell chemistry is to isolate a particular cellular component and then analyze its chemical structure and activity. In the case of DNA, this is feasible for relatively short molecules such as the genomes of small viruses. But genomes of even the simplest cells are much too large to directly analyze in detail at the molecular level. The problem is compounded for complex organisms. The human genome, for example, contains about 6 × 109 base pairs (bp) in the 23 pairs of chromosomes. Cleavage of human DNA with restriction enzymes that produce about one cut for every 3000 base pairs yields some 2 million fragments, far too many to separate from each other directly. This obstacle to obtaining pure DNA samples from large genomes has been overcome by recombinant DNA technology. With these methods virtually any gene can be purified, its sequence determined, and the functional regions of the sequence explored by altering it in planned ways and reintroducing the DNA into cells and into whole organisms.
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