Abstract

Oral pathology is a specialized field of dentistry and pathology that deals with the diagnosis and study of diseases affecting the oral and maxillofacial regions. It plays a pivotal role in early detection and management of a wide range of oral diseases, including developmental anomalies, infections, inflammatory conditions, benign and malignant neoplasms, and autoimmune disorders. Given the complex and dynamic nature of the oral environment, oral pathologies often present with overlapping signs and symptoms, making accurate diagnosis both challenging and essential. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the most prevalent oral pathologies encountered in clinical practice, including oral candidiasis, lichen planus, leukoplakia, oral squamous cell carcinoma, and periapical cysts. The paper delves into the etiology, clinical presentation, histopathological features, and systemic associations of each condition. Special emphasis is placed on diagnostic modalities such as clinical examination, imaging techniques, biopsy, and adjunctive laboratory investigations, which are critical in formulating a definitive diagnosis. Furthermore, the review discusses current treatment strategies tailored to specific conditions, ranging from pharmacological interventions and surgical procedures to multidisciplinary approaches involving oncology, infectious disease specialists, and maxillofacial surgeons. The integration of emerging technologies such as molecular diagnostics and artificial intelligence in oral pathology is also explored, highlighting their potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy and improve patient outcomes. By consolidating essential knowledge and recent advancements, this article aims to serve as a valuable resource for dental practitioners, oral pathologists, and healthcare providers involved in the management of oral diseases. Early recognition and intervention remain key in reducing morbidity and preventing malignant transformation, reinforcing the crucial role of oral pathology in comprehensive patient care.