Abstract

Oral pharmacology is a cornerstone of modern medicine and dentistry, offering critical insights into how drugs
are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted when administered through the oral route. This comprehensive
review explores the fundamental principles of oral pharmacology, delving into the mechanisms of drug action,
pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics relevant to clinical practice. The oral route remains one of the most
convenient and widely used methods of drug administration, but it poses unique challenges such as first-pass
metabolism, drug-food interactions, and variable bioavailability. The review begins by outlining the foundational
principles of pharmacology, including drug classification, receptor binding, dose-response relationships, and
therapeutic indices. It then advances to cover detailed pharmacokinetic processes — absorption via the
gastrointestinal tract, hepatic metabolism, and systemic circulation — with an emphasis on how formulation and
physiological conditions affect drug efficacy and safety. Pharmacodynamic mechanisms are discussed in relation to
receptor types, agonist/antagonist activity, and the modulation of cellular signaling pathways.
Clinical applications are extensively reviewed, particularly in the context of dentistry, internal medicine, and
chronic disease management. The pharmacological treatment of pain, infection, inflammation, cardiovascular
diseases, and neuropsychiatric conditions is analyzed with case-based examples. Special considerations for
pediatric, geriatric, and pregnant populations are also addressed. Moreover, the review considers current advances
and challenges in oral pharmacology, including drug resistance, polypharmacy, and personalized medicine.
By synthesizing contemporary research and clinical guidelines, this review serves as a foundational resource for
healthcare professionals, students, and researchers. It underscores the significance of integrating pharmacological
knowledge into evidence-based practice to optimize patient care, minimize adverse effects, and improve therapeutic
outcomes.

Keywords: Oral pharmacology; Drug metabolism; Pharmacokinetics; Pharmacodynamics; Clinical pharmacology; Drug interactions;First-pass effect; Bioavailability; Therapeutic applications; Personalizedmedicine