Cervical Cancer: Open Access
Open Access

Cervical cancer; Human papillomavirus (HPV); Screening; Risk factors; Symptoms; Prevention; HPV vaccination; Early detection

Introduction

Cervical cancer remains a major public health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where access to healthcare services is limited. It is the fourth most common cancer in women, with an estimated 600,000 new cases and over 340,000 deaths annually worldwide. The primary cause of cervical cancer is persistent infection with high-risk types of the human papillomavirus (HPV). Despite the availability of effective screening programs and HPV vaccines, many women remain unaware of the risks and symptoms associated with cervical cancer. Raising awareness about cervical cancer can contribute significantly to its prevention, early detection, and successful treatment [1,2].

Description

Cervical cancer originates in the cervix, the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It develops when normal cervical cells undergo abnormal changes and grow uncontrollably. The progression of cervical cancer usually takes several years and is often preceded by precancerous lesions known as cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). There are two main types of cervical cancer [3,4].

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) – This accounts for approximately 70-80% of all cervical cancers and originates in the squamous epithelial cells lining the cervix.

Adenocarcinoma – This form develops in the glandular cells of the cervix and is less common but more aggressive.

Cervical cancer progresses through multiple stages, from pre-cancerous changes to invasive cancer. Understanding these stages is crucial for timely intervention and treatment.

Symptoms of cervical cancer

In the early stages, cervical cancer may not present any noticeable symptoms. However, as the disease progresses, several warning signs may appear, including [5,6].

Abnormal vaginal bleeding-This includes bleeding between menstrual periods, after intercourse, or postmenopausal bleeding.

Pelvic pain or pain during intercourse Persistent pain in the lower abdomen or discomfort during sexual activity may indicate cervical abnormalities.

Unusual vaginal discharge – A watery, bloody, or foul-smelling discharge can be a symptom of advanced cervical cancer.

Painful urination or changes in bowel habits – In later stages, cervical cancer may affect the bladder or rectum, leading to discomfort or urinary/bowel difficulties.

Since these symptoms can also be associated with other gynecological conditions, it is essential for women to undergo regular screenings and seek medical evaluation when symptoms arise.

Risk factors for cervical cancer

Several factors increase the risk of developing cervical cancer, including:

1. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection – Persistent infection with high-risk HPV strains (e.g., HPV-16 and HPV-18) is the leading cause of cervical cancer.
2. Early sexual activity and multiple sexual partners – Engaging in sexual activity at a young age and having multiple partners increases the risk of HPV infection.
3. Smoking – Tobacco use weakens the immune system and contributes to cervical cancer development.
4. Weakened immune system – Women with compromised immunity, such as those with HIV/AIDS, are at a higher risk of HPV infection and cervical cancer.
5. Long-term use of oral contraceptives – Studies suggests that prolonged use of birth control pills (over five years) may slightly increase cervical cancer risk.
6. Lack of regular screening – Women who do not undergo routine Pap smears or HPV testing is at a greater risk of developing cervical cancer.
7. Poor nutrition and socioeconomic factors – A diet lacking in essential nutrients and limited access to healthcare services increase vulnerability to cervical cancer.

Solutions for cervical cancer prevention and control

Effective cervical cancer prevention and control strategies focus on vaccination, regular screening, early detection, and lifestyle modifications.

1. HPV vaccination

HPV vaccination is a highly effective preventive measure against cervical cancer. The vaccines protect against the most common high-risk HPV strains (16 and 18) responsible for about 70% of cervical cancer cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends vaccination for girls and boys between the ages of 9-14 before they become sexually active. Widespread HPV vaccination programs can significantly reduce cervical cancer incidence [7-10].

2. Regular screening and early detection

Early detection through screening can prevent cervical cancer or identify it in its earliest, most treatable stages. Key screening methods include:

• Pap smear (Pap test) – Identifies precancerous and cancerous cells in the cervix.
• HPV testing – Detects high-risk HPV infections that may lead to cervical cancer.
• Visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) – A cost-effective screening method used in low-resource settings.

Women should begin screening at age 21 and continue with regular tests as recommended by healthcare providers.

3. Promoting public awareness and education

Raising awareness about cervical cancer, its risk factors, and preventive measures is crucial. Health campaigns, community outreach programs, and digital platforms can educate women on the importance of vaccination and screening.

4. Lifestyle modifications

• Quit smoking – Smoking cessation reduces cervical cancer risk.
• Safe sexual practices – Using condoms and limiting the number of sexual partners can lower HPV exposure.
• Healthy diet and exercise – A diet rich in vitamins and antioxidants strengthens the immune system and enhances overall health.

5. Access to affordable healthcare

Governments and healthcare organizations should prioritize affordable and accessible cervical cancer screening and treatment programs, particularly in developing regions where cervical cancer rates are high.

Discussion

Despite advancements in prevention and treatment, cervical cancer remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality among women worldwide. The lack of awareness, cultural stigmas, and limited healthcare access contribute to the persistence of this disease. Implementing nationwide HPV vaccination programs, improving screening coverage and educating communities about cervical cancer are essential steps in combating this public health issue.

Additionally, research into novel treatment approaches, including targeted therapies and immunotherapies, offers promising prospects for better management of advanced cervical cancer cases. Collaboration among governments, healthcare organizations, and researchers is crucial in ensuring a global reduction in cervical cancer incidence and mortality.

Conclusion

Cervical cancer is a preventable and treatable disease when detected early. Increasing awareness about symptoms, risk factors, and prevention strategies can save lives. HPV vaccination, routine screening, and lifestyle modifications play key roles in reducing cervical cancer incidence. Governments and healthcare providers must work together to ensure that cervical cancer prevention programs are widely accessible, particularly in low-resource settings. By empowering women with knowledge and access to healthcare, we can move closer to eliminating cervical cancer as a global health threat.

Acknowledgement

None

Conflict of Interest

None

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